THE POLITICS OF TOTAL REFUSAL By Tatiana Mellema Defining Anarchism Anarchism emerged in its modern form as a self-governing ideal of social organization at the end of the eighteenth century in response to nationalism, industrialization, and capitalism.(1) The term was first used as a pejorative during the English civil wars (1642-1651) and French Revolution (1787-1799) to accuse revolutionary forces of advocating a lawless society that violated individual rights and justice.(2) William Godwin (1756-1836) social philosopher and journalist, provided the first clear statement of anarchist principles as was developed by philosophers such as Max Stirner (1806-1856) in Germany, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809- 1865) in France, and Peter Kropotkin (1842-1921) and Leo Tolstoy (1892-1910) in Russia.(3) Michael Bakunin (1814-1876) popularized the term in the fall of the Revolution of 1848, which swept across Europe in his Appeal to the Slavs . In his publication he associated revolution with social upheaval and the establishment of a stable societal order based on freedom and solidarity.(4) Artists have contributed to the development of anarchist thought throughout history, including Irish novelist and playwright Oscar Wilde (1854-1900) who believed that the artist who disregards public opinion in the quest for self-expression ought to be the living model for society.(5) Varying currents of anarchist philosophy have developed throughout the centuries. Broadly speaking, anarchism can be defined as a doctrine that rejects all forms of external government and the state. Anarchists by and large believe that society and individuals function best without them. (6) In this essay I will consider Paul-Émile Borduas (1905-1960) and the Automatistes as modern anarchists. I will explore the philosophy and art making activities of the Automatistes in relation to some of the figures of the anarchist movement. Writings by Godwin, Tolstoy, Bakunin, and Wilde will be considered in this analysis. Anarchism and Art Anarchism as an ideology has been an important part of modern art movements in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. According to the art historian Herbert Read (1893-1968), what makes anarchists unique is that most see revolution as a cultural, ideological, and creative process.(7) Read states: It takes place in everyday life, in the tiny crannies where the powerful but clumsy hands of state power cannot easily reach. It is not centralized and isolated... It takes place in a hundred thousand places at once, in families, on streets, in neighborhoods, in places of work. It is a revolution of a whole culture.(8) As such, anarchism can be understood in broad terms, as a large-scale cultural rebellion that includes culture as well as politics.(9) This coincides with the term "avant-garde art," which has been used to designate radical and advanced activity through a union of the artistic and social.(10) Anarchism has a long association with the arts, having had an undercurrent in the Dada movement in Germany that sought to achieve total freedom by destroying social order through art, and in French Surrealism, which determined to liberate man's mind, while systematically refusing the conditions of society.(11) In Alan Antliff's analysis of American modern art entitled Anarchist Modernism (2001), he argues that anarchism played a pivotal role in the formal stylistic developments of American modern art.(12) According to Antliff, anarchism could unfold entirely in an artistic context, working through the cultural field with multiple and equivocal discourses producing "anarchisms" both within and outside the anarchist movement.(13) As such, anarchism can be understood as a cultural rebellion taken up by modern artists, who are not necessarily aligned with a particular anarchist doctrine or party. Borduas and the Automatistes as Modern Anarchists Within this context Borduas can be considered a modern anarchist. Borduas resisted identifying with partisan politics. In Refus global (1948) a political manifesto that he wrote with the Automatistes, he stated: "Give the upper hand to whomever you like, pick anyone you want to rule the world, you'll still have the same basic structure, perhaps with a few minor changes in detail."(14) In La transformation continuelle... (1947), which was the first draft of the Refus global, Borduas explained that: On the west side of history anarchy signals to us as the only social form open to a multitude of possible individual realizations. We believe that social conscience has the capacity to develop to the point when one day man will be capable of governing himself without police and without governments: when public utilities alone suffice. We believe that social conscience can develop so that one day mankind will govern itself through a spontaneous, unrehearsed sense of order.(15) Such a statement confirms Borduas' resistance to prescriptive politics, and his view of anarchism as a social philosophy resisting oppressive authorities. Although this reference to anarchism is only one of a few in Borduas' writings, the practices of Borduas and the Automatistes parallel anarchist principles. The Automatistes criticized the existing authoritarian order. They believed in a decentralized self-regulating society that allows for individuals to realize their full potential in connection with the laws of nature. Through an examination of the core principles and practices taken on by Automatistes, this avant-garde art movement can be understood as an anarchist cultural rebellion led by Borduas. Premises of Anarchism Premise One The first premise of anarchism is its critique and opposition to conditions of authority. According to Tolstoy, "The object of power and its justification lies in the restraint of those who would wish to attain their own interests to the detriment of society".(16) Anarchists oppose authorities on the basis that they elicit oppressive power for personal gain. Borduas and the Automatistes developed a critique of Québec authority in response to the domineering conservatism of Montréal's art institutions. In recounting the experiences that led to writing Refus global Borduas provides examples of the tyranny and conservatism during his studies at the École des beaux-arts , and employment at École du meuble in the 1930s.(17) In addition to the stifling nature of Montréal's art schools, the Automatistes were denied exhibition opportunities in mainstream art galleries, and were often ridiculed by the press in the 1940s. A comment by Fernand Leduc (b. 1916) in Quartier Latin , in 1941 demonstrates the broad critique of authority that the Automatistes were developing in response to this cultural conservatism. Leduc argues that in Montréal a reaction against modern art was occurring because art as a force of life is fully acceptable to society in lively times, but dangerous and repressed in times of stagnation.(18) Seven years later Borduas describes Québec as an insular and jaundiced society, powerless against the privilege and affluence of the Catholic Church and other institutions organized to exploit the masses.(19) Under such conditions artists were like machines serving their masters, stifled from pursuing their own individual experimentation.(20) Premise Two The second premise of anarchism is the nature of social change. While anarchists are generally associated with violent uprising, the revolutionary change for many is a non-violent process beginning in the minds and behaviour of individuals even before institutions have changed.(21) According to Godwin, "Persuasion and not force, is the legitimate instrument of influencing the human mind."(22) Therefore it is thoughtful benevolent guides that act as catalysts of change. Many anarchists endeavor to create an alternative lifestyle that allows individuals to govern themselves outside of existing institutions.(23) It is thought that by forming new relationships, an alternative community can prosper and persuade other to follow suit, while the state collapses upon itself.(24) Similarly, Borduas and the Automatistes organized a cultural rebellion that was a total refusal of mainstream institutions. Resisting conformity to the conservative conditions of Québec culture, Borduas declared in Refus global "We must break with the conventions of society once and for all, and reject its utilitarian spirit...."(25) Rather than igniting a large-scale uprising of the masses he told readers: "You can keep your spoils, rational and premeditated like everything else on the warm bosom of decadence. We'll settle for unpredictable passion; we'll settle for total risk through global refusal."(26) The Automatistes were confident that anarchism would gradually prevail as people became aware of and listened to their individual minds. Until that time the Automatistes were developing a counter community in which their artistic and spiritual needs were free from the constraints of conservative art channels. Creating an alternative artistic culture, the group improvised art shows and performances in make-shift spaces such as their second exhibition held in the apartment of Claude Gauvreau (1925-1971) and Pierre Gauvreau's (b. 1922) mother.(27) Members also paid to publish pamphlets of their own writings on art and philosophy through the Mirth-Mythe publisher. They also wrote for the Université du Montréal student newspaper Quartier Latin , and sent numerous letters to mainstream newspaper dailies. Premise Three A third premise of Anarchism is its belief in an organization without compulsion that is based on free agreement and voluntary co-operation.(28) Anarchism calls for a small community and voluntary association of like-minded individuals wherein people can satisfy their material and spiritual needs.(29) In The Soul of a Man under Socialism (1904) Wilde criticized the stifling conditions of Victorian culture, and argued that the most fruitful organization of society was one based on a voluntary association of people. For Wilde, anarchist co-operation would allow for every person to realize true individualism through the perfection of creative self-expression that is necessary to life.(30)The Automatistes were an informal organization of like-minded artists who sought personal development. The group began with Borduas' acquaintance with some of his own students from École du Meuble and students from École des beaux-arts . As these artists began to spend time with one another informally, they discussed modern art and the state of society. Borduas' apartment and studio as well as the studio of Leduc were regular meeting places for the young group.(31) Saint-Hilaire became a site of reclusion for the group over the years with Borduas spending the warmer months in his house there and other Automatistes renting a place nearby.(32) Borduas described the fraternity of the group as one of mutual respect where each member was able to develop their individual interests. Writing to the Automatistes in 1950 Borduas stated: "The bond embodying all my capacity for love stems from the son discovering himself in his various fathers, becoming a father in turn, and loving all his own sons."(33) Therefore, although Borduas served as the spiritual and artistic leader of the group he insisted that the group was based on an equal fraternity of all its members. Premise Four A fourth premise of anarchism is the need for man to gain an understanding of the universe, since its natural laws are the organizing forces of a harmonious society.(34) Anarchists believe that natural laws govern the universe, allowing nature to flourish without the interference of domineering humans.(35) Bakunin argued that a universal order exists in nature and that every man is "the material product of the union and action of natural forces".(36) According to Godwin a harmonious society occurs once people recognize truths and interests of the universe, and begin to act accordingly.(37) Godwin argued that social improvements occur in direct proportion to the public's understanding of natural laws.(38) It is thought that by gaining an understanding of the laws of the universe, individuals will govern themselves harmoniously, free from human authority and according to the natural order. Through the artistic method developed by the Automatistes known as the surrational, the group sought for an individual development through nature that would lead them to anarchist harmony. They were highly influenced by the surrealist techniques of psychic automatism defined by the father of French Surrealism André Breton (1896-1966). Breton believed that the real functioning of thought occurred in the absence of control exercised by reason.(39) The Automatistes moved beyond surrealist automatism in their work in what Borduas defined as surrational automatism.(40) He described this technique as writing in plastic matter. This meant rejecting representational subjects for unpremeditated shapes that call upon one another until a feeling of unity is achieved.(41) Through the surrational, the Automatistes wanted to reject intention and reason, making way for magic, mystery, and internal drives. In this way they hoped to sharpen their awareness of human realities that they believed were connected to the larger universe.(42) Borduas wrote in Refus global: Within the foreseeable future, men will cast off their useless chains. They will realize their full, individual potential according to the unpredictable, necessary order of spontaneity- in splendid anarchy.(43) According to Borduas, as more and more individuals come to understand the universe, they can move the community into a state of harmonious anarchy ruled by the spontaneity of the universe. The Automatistes devoted themselves to spontaneous self-expression in order to gain a greater understanding of the universe. It was thought that by understanding and living according to the spontaneous rules of the natural world, they could create a harmonious community free from authoritarian rule. Conclusion The Automatistes disbanded shortly after Refus global 's publication in 1954. However, Borduas and the Automatistes may be one of the few anarchist revolutions in history that produced cultural and institutional change. In addition to introducing non-figurative art to Québec, the Automatistes began a tradition of anarchist protests that would be taken up by future generations of artists. In 1968, from November 7 th to the 11 th , demonstrations, artistic happenings and debates known as Opération Déclic took place at the Bibliothèque nationale du Québec . The protest was led by a number of artists, musicians, writers, and poets including Serge Lemoyne (1941-1998), Guy Montpetit (b. 1938), and Claude Gauvreau, in order to celebrate the continued relevance of Refus global on the year of its twentieth anniversary.(44) The strike was a means to unite artists so they could formulate their concerns in the socio-economic context, addressing the conservatism of the École des beaux-arts and the importance of artistic self-management.(45) Following the tenants of the Automatistes, Déclic led to the radical reformation of fine arts education in Québec. A year later École des beaux-arts became a part of Université du Québec à Montréal , where its curriculum was changed along with its right to grant university degrees.(46) Ignited by the conservatism of Québec culture in the 1940's, Borduas and the Automatistes waged a cultural rebellion that can be likened to anarchism. The group challenged state authorities including the Catholic Church and the political reign of Maurice Duplessis (1890-1959). Rather than eliciting a large-scale revolution, they created an alternative artistic community that celebrated the freedom of the individual through the surrational, and invited citizens to join in the battle. This cultural rebellion was formed in alternative galleries and spaces, rather than in the realm of partisan politics. The Automatistes laid down the tracks for change, their anarchism leading to the advent of the Quiet Revolution in 1960's where the arts continued to play an integral part in changing the culture and social fabric of Québec. ENDNOTES 1. Peter Marshall, Demanding the Impossible (London: Harper Collins, 1992), 4. 2. "Anarchism," Encyclopedia Britannica Online , 15 October 2006. http://search.eb.com/eb/article- 9117285. 3. Mashall 5. 4. Marshall 5. 5. Allan Antliff, Anarchist Modernism: Art, Politics, and the First American Avant-Garde (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2001), 7-8. 6. Marshall S. Shatz, "Introduction," The Essential Works of Anarchism , ed. Marshall S. Shatz (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1972), xiii. 7. Herbert Read, Anarchy and Order: Essays in Politics (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971), xviii. 8. Read xviii. 9. Antliff 1. 10. Linda Nochlin, The Politics of Vision: Essays on Nineteenth-Century Art and Society (New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1989), 1. 11. On Dada: Mashall 441. On Surrealism: André Breton, "What is Surrealism?," What is Surrealism?, ed. Franklin Rosemont (London: Pluto Press Limited, 1978), 113. 12. Antliff 3. 13. Antliff 3. 14. Paul-Émile Borduas, "Refus Global," Total Refusal , trans. Ray Ellenwood (Toronto: Exile Editions, 1985), 34. 15. Paul-Émile Borduas, "La transformation continuelle...," Paul Émile Borduas Writings 1942-1958, trans. François-Marc Gagnon and Dennis Young, ed. François-Marc Gagnon (Halifax: The Press of Nova Scotia College of Art, 1978), 38. 16. Leo Tolstoy, "Christian Anarchism," The Essential Works of Anarchism , ed. Marshall S. Shatz (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1972), 233. 17. Paul-Émile Borduas, "Projections libérantes," Paul Émile Borduas Writings 1942-1958, trans. François-Marc Gagnon and Dennis Young, ed. François-Marc Gagnon (Halifax: The Press of Nova Scotia College of Art, 1978), 104. 18. Ray Ellenwood, Egregore: A History of the Montreal Automatist Movement (Toronto: Exile Editions, 1992), 34. 19. Borduas, Total Refusal. 20. Borduas, Écrits 96. 21. Read xviii. 22. Mashall 218. 23. Marshall 638. 24. Marshall 638. 25. Borduas, Total Refusal 37. 26. Borduas, Total Refusal 40. 27. Françoise-Marc Gagnon, Paul-Émile Borduas , trans. Jill Corner, Susan LePan and Helena Scheffer (Montréal: Montréal Museum of Fine Arts, 1988), 90. 28. Mashall 45. 29. Shatz xx. 30. Oscar Wilde, The Soul of A Man Under Socialism (New York: Max N. Maisel, 1911), 54. 31. Ellenwood 61. 32. Ellenwood 59-61. 33. Paul-Émile Borduas, "Communication intime à mes chers amis," Paul Émile Borduas Writings 1942-1958, trans. François-Marc Gagnon and Dennis Young, ed. François-Marc Gagnon (Halifax: The Press of Nova Scotia College of Art, 1978),123. 34. Marshall S. Shatz, "Introduction," The Essential Works of Anarchism , ed. Marshall S. Shatz (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1972), xix. 35. Marshall 14. 36. Marshall 16. 37. Marshall 17. 38. Michael Bakunin, "God and the State," The Essential Works of Anarchism , ed. Marshall S. Shatz (New York: Quadrangle Books, 1972), 24. 39. Kim Grant, Surrealism and the Visual Arts: Theory and Reception (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 75. 40. Paul-Émile Borduas, "Comments on Some Current Words," Total Refusal , trans. Ray Ellenwood (Toronto: Exile Editions, 1985), 45- 47. 41. Borduas, Total Refusal 46-47. 42. Borduas, Total Refusal 46-47. 43. Ellenwood137. 44. Denise Leclerc, "The Pop Aesthetic," The 60s in Canada , ed. Denise Leclerc and Pierre Dessureault (Ottawa: National Gallery of Canada, 2005), 38. 45. Andre G. Bourassa, Surrealism and Quebec Literature: History of a Cultural Revolution (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984), 225 46. Leclerc 38. BIBLIOGRAPHY "Anarchism." Encyclopedia Britannica Online . 15 October 2006. http://search.eb.com/eb/article- 9117285. Antliff, Allan. Anarchist Modernism: Art, Politics, and the First American Avant-Garde . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001. Bakunin, Michael. "God and the State." The Essential Works of Anarchism . Ed. Marshall S. Shatz. New York; Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1972. 126-183. Borduas, Paul-Émile. Total Refusal. Trans. Ray Ellenwood. Toronto: Exile Editions,1985. ---, Paul Émile Borduas Writings 1942-1958. Trans. François-Marc Gagnon and Dennis Young. ed. François-Marc Gagnon. Halifax: Press of Nova Scotia College of Art, 1978. Bourassa, Andre G. Surrealism and Quebec Literature: History of a Cultural Revolution. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984. Breton, André. "What is Surrealism?," What is Surrealism?, Ed. Franklin Rosemont. London: Pluto Press Limited, 1978. Ellenwood, Ray. Egregore: A History of the Montreal Automatist Movement . Toronto:Exile Editions, 1992. Gagnon, Françoise-Marc. Paul-Émile Borduas . Trans. Jill Corner, Susan LePan and Helena Scheffer. Montréal: Montréal Museum of Fine Arts, 1988. Kim Grant. Surrealism and the Visual Arts: Theory and Reception. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 2005. Leclerc, Denise, and Pierre Dessureault, eds. The 60s in Canada . Ottawa: National Gallery of Canada, 2005. Marshall, Peter. Demanding the Impossible . London: Harper Collins, 1992. Nochlin, Linda. The Politics of Vision: Essays on Nineteenth-Century Art and Society.New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1989. Read, Herbert. Anarchy and Order: Essays in Politics . Boston: Beacon Press, 1971. Shatz, Marshall S., ed. The Essential Works of Anarchism . New York: Quadrangle Books, 1972. Tolstoy, Leo. "Christian Anarchism." The Essential Works of Anarchism . Ed. Marshall S. Shatz. New York: Quadrangle Books, 1972. 231-265. Wilde, Oscar. The Soul of A Man Under Socialism. New York: Max N. Maisel, 1911. |